Ecology of Harmful Algae

Harmful algal can cause a variety of deleterious effects, including the poisoning of fish and shellfish, habitat disruptions for many organisms, water discoloration, beach fouling, and even toxic effects for humans. In this volume, international experts provide an in-depth analysis of harmful algae topics and offer a comprehensive synthesis of the latest research in the field.

Part A Harmful Algae and Their Global Distribution



1 An Introduction to Harmful Algae
E. GRANÉLI and J.T. TURNER

References





2 Molecular Taxonomy of Harmful Algae
S. JANSON and P.K. HAYES

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Dinophyta (Dinoflagellates)

2.2.1 General Morphology

2.2.2 Dinophysis

2.2.3 Alexandrium

2.2.4 Protoperidinium, Prorocentrum

2.2.5 Karenia, Karlodinium, Takayama

2.2.6 Amphidinium, Cochlodinium, Gyrodinium

2.3 Cyanobacteria (Blue-Green Algae)

2.3.1 Anabaena, Aphanizomenon, Nodularia

2.3.2 Microcystis

2.3.3 Trichodesmium

2.4 Bacillariophyta (Diatoms)

2.4.1 Amphora, Pseudo-nitzschia, Nitzschia

2.5 Concluding Remarks


References


 

3 The Biogeography of Harmful Algae
N. LUNDHOLM and Ø. MOESTRUP

3.1 Biogeography and Species Concepts

3.1.1 Genetic Variation

3.2 Biogeographical Distribution

3.3 Distribution of Harmful Species

3.3.1 Dinoflagellates

3.3.2 Diatoms

3.3.3 Haptophytes

3.3.4 Raphidophyceans

3.3.5 Cyanobacteria


References


 

4 Importance of Life Cycles in the Ecology of
Harmful Microalgae

K.A. STEIDINGER and E. GARCÉS

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Phases of Phytoplankton Bloom Development and Life Cycles

4.2.1 Initiation

4.2.2 Growth and Maintenance

4.2.3 Dispersal/Dissipation/Termination

4.3 Environmental Factors versus Biological Factors Affecting Transition

4.4 Status of Knowledge and Direction Needed


References


 

Part B The Ecology of Major Harmful Algae Groups



5 The Ecology of Harmful Dinoflagellates
J.M. BURKHOLDER, R.V. AZANZA, and Y. SAKO

5.1 Introduction

5.2 General Ecology

5.2.1 Motility

5.2.2 Temperature, Light, Salinity and Turbulence

5.2.3 Nutrition: the Continuum from Auxotrophy to Parasitism

5.3 Blooms, Including Toxic Outbreaks

5.4 Human Influences

5.5 Conceptual Frameworks to Advance Understanding

References



 
6 The Ecology of Harmful Flagellates Within Prymnesiophyceae and Raphidophyceae
B. EDVARDSEN and I. IMAI

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Class Prymnesiophyceae (Division Haptophyta)

6.2.1 Taxonomy, Morphology and Life History

6.2.2 Distribution and Abundance

6.2.3 Autecology and Ecophysiology

6.2.4 Toxicity and Toxins

6.2.5 Ecological Strategies

6.3 Class Raphidophyceae (Division Heterokontophyta)

6.3.1 Taxonomy, Morphology and Life History

6.3.2 Distribution and Abundance

6.3.3 Autecology and Ecophysiology

6.3.4 Toxicity

6.3.5 Ecological Strategies


References


 

7 The Ecology of Harmful Diatoms
S.S. BATES and V.L. TRAINER

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Toxin-Producing Diatoms, Genus Pseudo-nitzschia

7.3 Domoic Acid in the Marine Food Web

7.4 Physiological Ecology of Pseudo-nitzschia spp

7.5 Molecular Tools for Studying Pseudo-nitzschia

7.6 Conclusions and Directions for Future Research


References


 

8 Ecology of Harmful Cyanobacteria
H.W. PAERL and R.S. FULTON III

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Environmental Factors Controlling CyanoHABs

8.2.1 Nutrients

8.2.2 Physical-Chemical Factors: Salinity and Turbulence

8.2.3 Salinity and Turbulence

8.3 CyanoHAB Interactions with Micro/Macroorganisms

8.4 CyanoHAB Management

References



9 Brown Tides
C. J. Gobler and W. G. Sunda

9.1 Background

9.2 Nutrients and Physical Factors

9.3 Sources of Cell Mortality


References


 

Part C The Ecology and Physiology of Harmful Algae



 
10 Harmful Algal Bloom Dynamics in Relation to Physical Processes
F.G. FIGUEIRAS, G.C. PITCHER, and M. ESTRADA

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Physical Constraints: From Diffusion to Advection

10.3 Life-Forms

10.4 Algal Communities

10.5 Retention and Transport: A Few Examples

10.5.1 Retention-Reduced Exchange

10.5.2 Transport

References



 
11 Ecological Aspects of Harmful Algal In Situ Population Growth Rates
W. STOLTE and E. GARCÉS

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Ecological Interpretation of In Situ Growth Rate Measuremtents

11.3 In Situ Growth Rates; Variation Among Taxonomic Groups

11.4 Are Harmful Algal Species r- or K-Strategists?

11.5 Conclusions

References



 
12 Harmful Algae and Cell Death
M.J.W. VELDHUIS and C.P.D. BRUSSAARD

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Mortality of HABs

12.3 Death Due to HABs

12.4 Mechanisms to Avoid Cell Mortality

12.5 Ecological Implications

References



 
13 The Diverse Nutrient Strategies of Harmful Algae: Focus on Osmotrophy
P. M. GLIBERT and C. LEGRAND

13.1 Introduction and Terminology

13.2 Osmotrophy Pathways and Methods to Explore Them

13.3 Cellular Costs and Benefits of Osmotrophy

13.4 Ecological Significance of Osmotrophy

13.5 A Comment on Evolutionary Aspects of Osmotrophy

13.6 Summary

References



 
14 Phagotrophy in Harmful Algae
D. STOECKER, U. TILLMANN, and E. GRANÉLI

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Phagotrophy and its Advantages

14.3 Relationship of Phagotrophy to Toxicity

14.4 Significance of Phagotrophy

References



 
15 Allelopathy in Harmful Algae: A Mechanism to Compete for Resources?
E. GRANÉLI and P.J. HANSEN

15.1 Harmful Algal Species Known of Allelopathy

15.2 Approaches to Demonstrate/Study Allelopathy – Pitfalls and Strength/Weaknesses of Experimental Approaches

15.3 Which Toxins are Involved in the Allelopathic Effects?

15.4 Influence of Abiotic and Biotic Factors on Allelopathy

15.4.1 Abiotic Factors

15.4.2 Biotic Factors

15.5 Ecological Significance of Allelopathy in Marine Ecosystems

References



 
16 Trace Metals and Harmful Algal Blooms
W.G SUNDA

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Chemistry and Availability of Metals

16.3 Trace Metals as Limiting Nutrients

16.4 Trace Metal Toxicity

16.5 Trace Metal Effects on HABs: Domoic Acid Production in Pseudonitzschia

16.6 Trace Metal Effects on Other HAB Species


References


 

17 Molecular Physiology of Toxin Production and Growth Regulation in Harmful Algae
A. CEMBELLA and U. JOHN

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Phycotoxin Biosynthesis

17.3 Growth and Regulation of Toxin Production

17.4 Toxin Production Through the Cell Cycle

17.5 Molecular Approaches to Growth and Toxin Expression

17.6 Current and Future Perspectives


References


 

18 Chemical and Physical Factors Influencing Toxin Content
E. GRANÉLI and K. FLYNN

18.1 Introduction

18.2 Growth Stage and Toxin Production

18.3 Physical Factors Influencing Toxin Content

18.4 Inorganic Nutrients and Toxin Content

18.5 Organic Matter and Toxin Content

18.6 Conclusions

References



 
19 Relationships Between Bacteria and Harmful Algae
M. KODAMA, G.J. DOUCETTE, and D.H. GREEN

19.1 Introduction

19.2 Diversity of Algal-Associated Bacteria

19.2.1 Bacteria Associated with Harmful Algal Species

19.2.2 Spatio-Temporal Relationships Between Bacteria and Algae

19.3 Bacterial Influences on Algal Growth, Metabolism, and Toxins

19.3.1 Bacterial Effects on Algal Growth

19.3.2 The Role of Bacteria in Toxin Production

19.3.3 Bacterially-Mediated Release and Metabolism of Algal Toxins

19.4 Potential Implications of Interactions Among Bacteria

19.5 Future Directions/Research Needs/Critical Questions

References



Part D Harmful Algae and the Food Web



 
20 Harmful Algae Interactions with Marine Planktonic Grazers
J.T. TURNER

20.1 Introduction

20.2 Planktonic Grazers

20.2.1 Heterotrophic Dinoflagellates and other Flagellates

20.2.2 Tintinnids and Aloricate Ciliates

20.2.3 Rotifers

20.2.4 Copepods and other Mesozooplankton

20.3 HAB Toxin Accumulation in Zooplankton

20.4 Selective Grazing and Feeding Deterrence by Harmful Algae

20.5 Impact of Zooplankton Grazing on Formation and Termination of HA Blooms

20.6 Summary


References


 

21 Pathogens of Harmful Microalgae
P.S. SALOMON and I. IMAI

21.1 Introduction

21.2 Viruses

21.2.1 Host Specificity

21.3 Algicidal Bacteria

21.3.1 Modes of Algicidal Activity and Specificity

21.3.2 Ecology of Algicidal Bacteria and Harmful Microalgae

21.3.3 Seaweed Beds as Prevention of HABs

21.4 Parasitic Fungi

21.4.1 Host Specificity

21.5 Parasitic Protists

21.5.1 Host Specificity

21.5.2 Host Avoidance of Parasitic Infection

21.6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives

References



 
22 Phycotoxin Pathways in Aquatic Food Webs: Transfer, Accumulation and Degradation
G. DOUCETTE, I. MANEIRO, I. RIVEIRO, and C. SVENSEN

22.1 Introduction

22.2 Bacteria

22.3 Zooplankton

22.4 Bivalves

22.5 Benthic Invertebrates (Non-Bivalves)

22.6 Fishes

22.7 Seabirds and Marine Mammals

22.8 Summary and Conclusions

References





Part E Studying and Mitigating Harmful Algae: New Approaches



23 Molecular Approaches to the Study of Phytoplankton Life Cycles: Implications for Harmful Algal Bloom Ecology
R. W. LITAKER and P. A. TESTER

23.1 Introduction

23.2 Identifying Life Cycle Stages Using Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH)

23.3 Nuclear Staining to Determine Ploidy and Growth Rates

23.4 Genomic Approaches to Identifying Mitotic and Meiotic Life Cycle Stages

23.5 Measuring Genetic Recombination During Sexual Reproduction

23.6 Future Application of Reverse Transcriptase Assays and DNA

Microarrays in Life Cycle Studies

23.7 Conclusions

References





24 Laboratory and Field Applications of Ribosomal RNA Probes to Aid the Detection and Monitoring of Harmful Algae
K. METFIES, K. TÖBE, C. SCHOLIN, and L.K. MEDLIN

24.1 Introduction

24.2 Ribosomal RNA Sequences as Markers for Phylogenetic Studies and Species Identification

24.3 Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization (FISH) for Identifying Intact Cells

24.3.1 TSA FISH for Flow Cytometry

24.3.2 TSA-FISH for Solid Phase Cytometry

24.4 Detecting Many Species Simultaneously Using DNA Probe Arrays

24.4.1 Microarrays on Glass Slides and Fluorescence Detection

24.4.2 Handheld Array Device That Uses Electro-Chemical Detection

24.4.3 DNA Probe Arrays for Autonomous Detection of Species Using the Environmental Sample Processor (ESP)

24.5 Conclusions

References



 
25 Mitigation and Controls of HABs
H.G. KIM

25.1 Introduction

25.2 Mitigation Strategies and Control of HABs

25.2.1 Precautionary Impact Preventions

25.2.2 Direct and Indirect Bloom Controls

25.2.3 Contingency Plans for Fish Culture

25.3 Conclusions

References



Part F Human Impact on Harmful Algae and Harmful Algae Impact on Human Activity



 
26 The Complex Relationships Between Increases in Fertilization of the Earth, Coastal Eutrophication and Proliferation of Harmful Algal Blooms
P.M. GLIBERT and J.M. BURKHOLDER

26.1 Introduction

26.2 Global Trends in Population, Agricultural Fertilizer Usage and Implications for Export to Coastal Waters

26.3 Nutrient Limitation versus Eutrophication: Basic Conceptual Framework

26.4 Nutrient Loading, Nutrient Composition, and HABs

26.5 Factors Complicating the Relationship between Eutrophication and HABs

26.6 Summary

References



 
27 "Top-Down" Predation Control on Marine Harmful Algae
J.T. TURNER and E. GRANÉLI

27.1 Introduction

27.2 "Top-down" Predators

27.2.1 Medusae

27.2.2 Ctenophores

27.2.3 Fishes

27.3 Case Studies

27.3.1 Black Sea

27.3.2 Mesocosm Studies

The Role of Ciliates

27.4 Summary

References



 
28 Climate Change and Harmful Algal Blooms
B. DALE, M. EDWARDS, and P. C. REID

28.1 Introduction

28.2 Evidence From the Past

28.3 Results From Plankton Records

28.4 Results From The Sedimentary Record of Dinoflagellate Cysts

28.5 Conclusions

References





29 Anthropogenic Introductions of Microalgae
G. HALLEGRAEFF and S. GOLLASCH

29.1 Potential Transport Vectors for Microalgae

29.2 Vector Surveys for Microalgae

29.3 Evidence for Successful Establishment of Nonindigenous Microalgae

29.3.1 Absence in Historic Samples

29.3.2 Sediment Cyst Cores

29.3.3 Increasing Molecular Evidence

29.4 Management Options to Reduce Risk of Introductions

29.4.1 Warning System for HABs in Ballast-Water-Uptake Zones

29.4.2 Ballast Water Exchange Studies on Phytoplankton

Empty/Refill (= Reballasting)

Continuous Flow-through of Ballast Water (= Ballast Exchange)

Dilution Method

Location of Ballast Water Exchange

Is 95% Ballast Water Exchange of HAB Species Sufficient?

29.4.3 Treatment Options

29.5 Conclusions

References



 
30 The Economic Effects of Harmful Algal Blooms
P. HOAGLAND and S. SCATASTA

30.1 Introduction

30.2 Scientific Concerns

30.3 Economic Concerns

30.4 Why Measure Economic Losses?

30.5 Economic Losses

30.6 Economic Impacts

30.7 Estimates of National Economic Effects

30.8 Summary

References

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